Correct Use of the Possessive Apostrophe

[Ghazala]

Some Pointers on Style

Correct Use of the Possessive Apostrophe
Be careful when using the apostrophe to indicate possession. The basic rules are simple:

when the noun is singular, the apostrophe goes before the s

when the noun is plural, the apostrophe goes after the s
The one exception to this rule is the case of it. It's does not mean of it, but is rather a contraction of it is.

Tenses
Conventionally, when we write about a text, we do so in the present tense. So we write: "In the Tractatus, Wittgenstein explores the idea that the function of language is to represent" even though Wittgenstein is (sadly) no longer with us and his exploration is now done. Sometimes you will, of course, want to use the past, as, for example, when you want to indicate a change in someone's thinking: "Russsell began his career as a idealist, but his views slowly changed". The crucial thing, however, is that you avoid mixing tenses unnecessarily.


Gender and Generalisation
Sometimes you will want to make generalised statements about ‘the author’, ‘the reader’, and so forth. Traditionally, the pronouns ‘he’, ‘him’, and ‘his’ were used for such generalisations. In recent decades, many people have come to recognise that the use of such terminology is discriminatory and that we should attempt to write in a more balanced manner. This often causes problems, as people struggle to find an easy way of avoiding gender-specific terminology. In speaking, many people now rely on gender-neutral plurals (‘they’, ‘their’, ‘them’), often combining such plurals with gender-neutral singulars, so that you will hear people say "The reader must make up their own mind". While this is acceptable in casual conversation, we need, in academic writing, to attend more closely to the formalities of language. This being the case, you should avoid such failures of agreement in your own writing. This doesn't mean that you should constantly write things like: "The reader must make up his or her own mind; it is finally his or her own decision". You could, for instance write: "Readers must make up their own minds; it is finally an individual decision". The key thing is to adopt a flexible and varied approach, rather than being formulaic and rigid.


Contractions, Slang and Clichés
When we talk, and when we write informally, we tend to use quite a lot of contractions, such as ‘I’ll’, ‘won’t’, ‘hadn’t’, ‘she’d’ and so forth. When you are writing an essay, you are using a very particular form of language: a formal, academic version of English, different from the language we speak casually every day. Academic English requires that you not use contractions in your writing, as it also requires that you should, as far as possible, avoid using slang terms and clichés (e.g., "This issue has become a political football").


Difficult Singulars and Plurals
The singular and plural forms of the following words are often confused by students:

• crisis is singular; crises is plural

• phenomenon is singular; phenomena is plural

• criterion is singular; criteria is plural

• prolegomenon is singular; prolegomena is plural

• medium is singular; media is plural

• datum is singular; data is plural

• stratum is singular; strata is plural

• index is singular; indices is plural

• appendix is singular; appendices is plural

• crux is singular; cruces is plural

• schema is singular; schemata is plural

• corpus is singular; corpora is plural


Two General Rules
If at all possible, avoid ending a sentence with a preposition. So: instead of writing: 'This is the agreement we have entered into.' it is better to write: 'This is the agreement into which we have entered.' Winston Churchill long ago noted that this rule can sometimes lead to absurdities, as when he observed that it was a constraint on his writing up with which he would not put. So: observe the rule as long as it doesn't lead to your writing something awkward and inelegant.

If at all possible, avoid 'split infinitives' -- which is to say, avoid placing an adverb in the middle of the infinitive form of the verb (that is, for example, 'to write', 'to speak'). The most famous example of a split infinitive is Star Trek's 'to boldly go where no man has gone before', which should, of course, be 'boldly to go where no man has gone before' (or, better still: 'boldly to go where no-one has gone before'). Again, you should only follow this rule as long as it doesn't lead to your writing something awkward and inelegant.